Evaluation of precopulatory pairing behaviour and male fertility in a marine amphipod exposed to plastic additives.

Plastics contain a mixture of chemical additives that can leach into the environment and potentially cause harmful effects on reproduction and the endocrine system. Two of these chemicals, N-butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS) and triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), are among the top 30 organic chemicals detected in surface and groundwater and are currently placed on international watchlist for evaluation. Although bans have been placed on legacy pollutants such as diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP), their persistence remains a concern. This study aimed to examine the impact of plastic additives, including NBBS, TPHP, DBP, and DEHP, on the reproductive behaviour and male fertility of the marine amphipod Echinogammarus marinus. Twenty precopulatory pairs of E. marinus were exposed to varying concentrations of the four test chemicals to assess their pairing behaviour. A high-throughput methodology was developed and optimised to record the contact time and re-pair time within 15 min and additional point observations for 96 h. The study found that low levels of NBBS, TPHP, and DEHP prolonged the contact and re-pairing time of amphipods and the proportion of pairs reduced drastically with re-pairing success ranging from 75% to 100% in the control group and 0%-85% in the exposed groups at 96 h. Sperm count declined by 40% and 60% in the 50 µg/l and 500 µg/l DBP groups, respectively, whereas TPHP resulted in significantly lower sperms in 50 µg/l exposed group. Animals exposed to NBBS and DEHP showed high interindividual variability in all exposed groups. Overall, this study provides evidence that plastic additives can disrupt the reproductive mechanisms and sperm counts of amphipods at environmentally relevant concentrations. Our research also demonstrated the usefulness of the precopulatory pairing mechanism as a sensitive endpoint in ecotoxicity assessments to proactively mitigate population-level effects in the aquatic environment.

The no-observed-adverse-effect level of phthalates promotes proliferation and cell cycle progression in normal human breast cells.

OBJECTIVE: The data on the association between phthalates and breast cancer risk remains inconsistent. This study aimed to explore the possible mechanism of low-dose exposures of phthalates, including Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP), and di(20ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), on breast tumorigenesis. METHODS AND METHODS: MCF-10A normal breast cells were treated with phthalates (10 and 100 nM) and 17ß-estradiol (E2, 10 nM), which were co-cultured with fibroblasts from normal mammary tissue. Cell viability, cycle, and apoptosis were detected by MTT assay, flow cytometry, and TUNEL assay respectively. The expression levels of related proteins were determined by Western blot. RESULTS: Like E2, both 10 nM and 100 nM phthalates exerted significantly higher cell viability, lower apoptosis, and increased cell numbers in the S and G2/M phases with up-regulation of cyclin D/CDK4, cyclin E/CDK2, cyclin A/CDK2, cyclin A/CDK1, and cyclin B/CDK1, compared with the control group. Significant increase in PDK1, P13K, p-AKT, p-mTOR, and BCL-2 expression and a decrease in Bax protein, cytochrome C, caspase 8, and caspase 3 levels were noted in cells treated with 10 nM and 100 nM phthalates and E2, compared with the control group and MCF-10A cells co-cultured with fibroblasts. The effects of the three phthalates were noted to be dose-dependent. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that phthalates at a level below its no-observed-adverse-effect concentration, as defined by the current standards, still induce cell cycle progression and proliferation as well as inhibit apoptosis of normal breast cells. Thus, the possibility of breast tumorigenesis through chronic phthalate exposure should be considered.

Exposure to endocrine disruptors promotes biofilm formation and contributes to increased virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Anthropogenic activities contribute to the spread of chemicals considered as endocrine disruptors (ED) in freshwater ecosystems. While several studies have reported interactions of EDs with organisms in those ecosystems, very few have assessed the effect of these compounds on pathogenic bacteria. Here we have evaluated the impact of five EDs found in aquatic resources on the virulence of human pathogen P. aeruginosa. ED concentrations in French aquatic resources of bisphenol A (BPA), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), ethylparaben (EP), methylparaben (MP) and triclosan (TCS) at mean molar concentration were 1.13, 3.58, 0.53, 0.69, and 0.81 nM respectively. No impact on bacterial growth was observed at EDs highest tested concentration. Swimming motility of P. aeruginosa decreased to 28.4% when exposed to EP at 100 µM. Swarming motility increased, with MP at 1 nM, 10 and 100 µM (1.5-fold); conversely, a decrease of 78.5%, with DBP at 100 µM was observed. Furthermore, exposure to 1 nM BPA, DBP and EP increased biofilm formation. P. aeruginosa adhesion to lung cells was two-fold higher upon exposure to 1 nM EP. We demonstrate that ED exposure may simultaneously decrease mobility and increase cell adhesion and biofilm formation, which may promote colonisation and establishment of the pathogen.

Regulation of the cell cycle and P13K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway by phthalates in normal human breast cells.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the impact of phthalates, including Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP), and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), in breast carcinogenesis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: MCF-10A normal breast cells were treated with phthalates (100 nM) and 17ß-estradiol (E2, 10 nM), which were co-cultured with fibroblasts from normal mammary tissue adjacent to estrogen receptor positive primary breast cancers. Cell viability was determined using a 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Cell cycles were analyzed using flow cytometry. The proteins involving cell cycles and P13K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway were then evaluated by Western blot analysis. RESULTS: MCF-10A co-cultured cells treated with E2, BBP, DBP, and DEHP exhibited a significant increase in cell viability using MTT assay. The expressions of P13K, p-AKT, and p-mTOR, as well as PDK1 expression, were significantly higher in MCF-10A cells treated with E2 and phthalates. E2, BBP, DBP, and DEHP significantly increased cell percentages in the S and G2/M phases. The significantly higher expression of cyclin D/CDK4, cyclin E/CDK2, cyclin A/CDK2, cyclin A/CDK1, and cyclin B/CDK1 in MCF-10A co-cultured cells were induced by E2 and these three phthalates. CONCLUSION: These results provide consistent data regarding the potential role of phthalates exposure in the stimulating proliferation of normal breast cells, enhancing cell viability, and driving P13K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and cell cycle progression. These findings strongly support the hypothesis that phthalates may play a crucial role in breast tumorigenesis.

DNA methylation-mediated inhibition of MGARP is involved in impaired progeny testosterone synthesis in mice exposed to DBP in utero.

The dibutyl phthalate (DBP) has been detected in fetuses and infants and can cause damage to the reproductive system in adulthood, but the exact mechanism remains unclear. Here, we aim to investigate the effects of intrauterine DBP exposure on offspring reproductive function and explore possible mechanisms. SPF C57BL/6 pregnant mice were given DBP (0.5, 5, 75 mg/kg/d) or corn oil from day 5 to day 19 by gavage. After weaning, the pups were fed a standard diet for 5 weeks. In addition, TM3 Leydig cell cultures were used to study the relevant mechanisms in vitro. The results showed that intrauterine DBP exposure could reduce sperm density and sperm motility, cause testicular tissue damage, down-regulate serum T and LH levels, and up-regulate serum FSH levels at 75 mg/kg/d. Western blot and methylation detection revealed intrauterine exposure to DBP down-regulated testosterone synthesis-related proteins StAR, P450scc, 3ß-HSD, PKA, and PKC expression, while up-regulated the levels of methyltransferase proteins expression and DNA 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in testicular tissue of mouse offspring at 75 mg/kg/d. Further detection found in utero 75 mg/kg/d DBP exposure down-regulated MGARP protein expression, and induced incomplete methylation of the MGARP gene. An in vitro analysis showed that MGARP inhibition is involved in an impaired testosterone synthesis in TM3 cells. Cell culture results suggest that MGARP down-regulation may be involved in impaired testosterone production in monobutyl phthalate-treated cells. The present study revealed that 75 mg/kg/d DBP exposure in utero resulted in testosterone synthesis disorders and reproductive function impairment in mouse offspring, and the mechanism may be related to DNA methylation-mediated down-regulation of MGARP in the testis.

DBP and BaP co-exposure induces kidney injury via promoting pyroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells in rats.

Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) are widespread environmental and foodborne contaminants that have detrimental effects on human health. Although people are often simultaneously exposed to DBP and BaP via the intake of polluted food and water, the combined effects on the kidney and potential mechanisms remain unclear. Hence, we treated rats with DBP and BaP for 90 days to investigate their effects on kidney histopathology and function. We also investigated the levels of paramount proteins and genes involved in pyroptosis and TLR4/NF-κB p65 signaling in the kidney. Our research showed that combined exposure to DBP and BaP triggered more severe histopathological and renal function abnormalities than in those exposed to DBP or BaP alone. Simultaneously, combined exposure to DBP and BaP enhanced the excretion of IL-1ß and IL-18, along with the release of LDH in rat renal tubular epithelial cells (RTECs). Moreover, combined exposure to DBP and BaP increased the expression of pyroptosis marker molecules, including NLRP3, ASC, cleaved-Caspase-1, and GSDMD. Meanwhile, the combination of DBP and BaP activated TLR4/NF-κB signaling in the kidney. Taken together, the combined exposure to DBP and BaP causes more severe kidney injury than that caused by DBP or BaP exposure separately. In addition, pyroptosis of RTECs regulated by TLR4/NF-κB signaling may add to the kidney damage triggered by combined exposure to DBP and BaP.

Effects of phthalate esters on soil microbial community under different planting patterns in Northern China: Case study of Hebei Province.

Soil microorganisms are biological factors involved in the farmland environment. The factors that shape soil microbial communities and how these are influenced by geographic location, planting pattern (open-field or greenhouse), and soil organic pollutants (phthalate esters, PAEs) remain poorly understood at large scales. Using 16 S rRNA gene and ITS sequencing, we characterized the soil microbiota in open-field and greenhouse soils in Hebei Province, China, and correlated their structure and composition to geographic location, planting pattern and PAEs. Compared with geographic location, planting pattern is more decisive for shaping soil microbes and has more significant effects on bacteria, and the effects are shaped by the number and types of core OTUs. PAEs participated in the shaping of soil microbial communities by altering the relative abundances of dominant microorganisms in the two planting patterns, and the effects of PAEs with high Kow were more significant. PAEs have a greater impact on bacteria than fungi in both planting patterns. Bacteria in the greenhouse soil were sensitive to the 9 kinds of PAEs detected, however in the open-field samples, mainly responded to PAEs with high Kow and rarely respond to PAEs with low Kow. DEHP and DBP, as two monomers with the highest concentration, have significant effects on dominant genera of microorganisms under both planting patterns, with inhibiting effect on bacteria and significantly promotion on fungi. Our study clarified the factors that have a substantial impact on soil microorganisms at the provincial scale and the mechanisms involved in shaping soil microbial community structure, as well as the significant impact of PAEs on soil microbial dominant microorganisms.

Phthalates promote the invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells by enhancing the interaction between Pregnane X receptor and E26 transformation specific sequence 1.

Phthalates (PAEs) are considered endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), a series of compounds able to disrupt the normal regulation of the human endocrine-system. In the present study, we investigated the roles of four PAEs, butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), and diethyl phthalate (DEP), in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. We define novel roles for the PAEs on the migration of HCC cells via their enhancing of the interaction between the pregnane X receptor (PXR) and E26 transformation specific sequence 1 (ETS-1). Our results indicate that PAEs induced the transcriptional activation of ETS-1 and PXR. PXR activated by PAEs could bind to ETS-1 directly and enhanced the activity of ETS-1, which resulted in the induction of invasion-related ETS-1 target genes. The "LXXLL" motif in the ETS-1C-terminal was essential for the interaction between PXR and ETS-1 induced by PAEs. Treatment of PAEs promoted the nuclear accumulation of ETS-1 or the recruitment of ETS-1, but not in cells expressing ETS-1 with a mutated LXXLL motif in its downstream gene promoter region, or following transfection of PXR siRNA. Treatment with the PXR antagonist ketoconazole almost completely inhibited the effects of PAEs. Moreover, PAEs enhanced the in vitro or in vivo invasion of HCC cells via PXR/ETS-1. Therefore, our results not only contribute to a better understanding of HCC, but also extended the roles of EDCs regulating human malignancies.

Di-n-butyl phthalate diminishes testicular steroidogenesis by blocking the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis: relationship with germ cell apoptosis in Japanese quail.

Although di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) induces germ cell apoptosis, the underlying mechanism is not yet clear in quail. In this study, prepubertal quails were given a single dose of 500mg kg-1 DBP by gavage and were then killed 3, 6 and 24h after treatment. There was a significant reduction in intratesticular testosterone (ITT) concentrations and testicular steroidogenic enzyme mRNA expression and a significant increase in germ cell apoptosis in DBP-treated compared with control quails at all time points. Maximum apoptosis was detected 6h after treatment and the maximum reduction in testosterone concentrations was at 3h. To investigate whether DBP suppressed testicular steroidogenesis by affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis, we analysed pituitary LH subunit ß (Lhb) mRNA expression and serum LH concentrations. At all time points, pituitary Lhb expression and serum LH concentrations were significantly decreased following DBP treatment. The present observations suggest the possibility that DBP blocked LH secretion from the hypothalamus and/or pituitary, thereby decreasing LH stimulation of Leydig cells and reducing ITT concentrations. DBP-induced decreases in ITT concentrations may cause changes to the physical structure of Sertoli cells, which, in turn, may induce germ cell apoptosis.

Human Erythrocytes Exposed to Phthalates and Their Metabolites Alter Antioxidant Enzyme Activity and Hemoglobin Oxidation.

Phthalates used as plasticizers have become a part of human life because of their important role in various industries. Human exposure to these compounds is unavoidable, and therefore their mechanisms of toxicity should be investigated. Due to their structure and function, human erythrocytes are increasingly used as a cell model for testing the in vitro toxicity of various xenobiotics. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to assess the effect of selected phthalates on methemoglobin (metHb), reactive oxygen species (ROS) including hydroxyl radical levels, as well as the activity of antioxidative enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), in human erythrocytes. Erythrocytes were incubated with di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), and their metabolites, i.e., mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP), at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 100 µg/mL for 6 or 24 h. This study shows that the analyzed phthalates disturbed the redox balance in human erythrocytes. DBP and BBP, at much lower concentrations than their metabolites, caused a statistically significant increase of metHb and ROS, including hydroxyl radical levels, and changed the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The studied phthalates disturbed the redox balance in human erythrocytes, which may contribute to the accelerated removal of these cells from the circulation.

Application of a combined aggregate exposure pathway and adverse outcome pathway (AEP-AOP) approach to inform a cumulative risk assessment: A case study with phthalates.

Advancements in measurement and modeling capabilities are providing unprecedented access to estimates of chemical exposure and bioactivity. With this influx of new data, there is a need for frameworks that help organize and disseminate information on chemical hazard and exposure in a manner that is accessible and transparent. A case study approach was used to demonstrate integration of the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) and Aggregate Exposure Pathway (AEP) frameworks to support cumulative risk assessment of co-exposure to two phthalate esters that are ubiquitous in the environment and that are associated with disruption of male sexual development in the rat: di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP). A putative AOP was developed to guide selection of an in vitro assay for derivation of bioactivity values for DEHP and DnBP and their metabolites. AEPs for DEHP and DnBP were used to extract key exposure data as inputs for a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model to predict internal metabolite concentrations. These metabolite concentrations were then combined using in vitro-based relative potency factors for comparison with an internal dose metric, resulting in an estimated margin of safety of ~13,000. This case study provides an adaptable workflow for integrating exposure and toxicity data by coupling AEP and AOP frameworks and using in vitro and in silico methodologies for cumulative risk assessment.

Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of e-liquids and their potential associations with nicotine, menthol and phthalate esters.

In this study, we determined DNA damage and chromosome breakage (indicators of genotoxicity) and cell viability (an indicator of cytotoxicity) in human lymphoblastoid TK6 and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells treated with 33 e-liquids using in vitro single cell gel (comet), micronucleus (MN), and trypan blue assays, respectively. We also measured the contents of nicotine, five phthalate esters, and DL-menthol in the e-liquids to examine their effects on DNA damage, chromosome breakage, and cell viability. Our chemical analyses showed that: (1) six e-liquids had nicotine ≥2-fold higher than the manufacture's label claim (2-3.5 mg); (2) both dimethyl- and dibutyl-phthalate levels were >0.1 µg/g, i.e., their threshold limits as additives in cosmetics; and (3) the DL-menthol contents ranged from 0.0003 to 85757.2 µg/g, with those of two e-liquids being >1 mg/g, the threshold limit for trigging sensory irritation. Though all the e-liquids induced DNA damage in TK6 cells, 20 resulted in cell viabilities ≤75%, indicating cytotoxicity, yet the inverse relationship between cell viability and DNA damage (r = -0.628, p = 0.003) might reflect their role as pro-apoptotic and DNA damage inducers. Fifteen e-liquids induced MN% in TK6 cells ≥3-fold that of untreated cells. Some of the increase in %MN might be false due to high cytotoxicity, yet six brands showed acceptable cell viabilities (59-71%), indicating chromosome damage. DNA damage and %MN increased when the TK6 cells were exposed to metabolic activation. The CHO cells were less sensitive to the genotoxic effects of the e-liquids than the TK6 cells. DL-menthol was found to be associated with decreased cell viability and increased DNA damage, even at low levels. We cannot dismiss the presence of other ingredients in e-liquids with cytotoxic/genotoxic properties since out of the 63 different flavors, 47 induced DNA damage (≥3-folds), and 26 reduced cell viability (≤75%) in TK6 cells.

SREBP2-STARD4 is involved in synthesis of cholesteryl ester stimulated by mono-butyl phthalate in MLTC-1 cells.

Sterol is synthesized from cholesterol which is from the hydrolysis of stored cholesteryl esters. The process of maintaining cholesterol homeostasis is regulated by SREBP2-STARD4. Lots of researches demonstrated that male steroidogenesis could be interfered by di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) or monobutyl phthalate (MBP). However, mechanisms of MBP exposure in this process have not been uncovered clearly. The objectiveof this study was to explore roles of SREBP2 and STARD4 in cholesteryl estersynthesis stimulated by MBP in mouse Leydig tumor cells (MLTC-1). MLTC-1 exposedto 10-8, 10-7, 10-6, 10-5 M MBP showed that levels of cholestery ester were increased significantly at 10-7 M MBP. Besides, cholesteryl ester synthesis stimulated by MBP was down-regulate when STARD4 or SREBP2 were inhibited. Activity of SREBP2 binding to the promoter of STARD4 was increased after MBP exposure. This study suggests that MBP can increase cholesteryl ester synthesis through SREBP2-STARD4 signal pathway in MLTC-1 cells.

Role of JNK and ERK1/2 MAPK signaling pathway in testicular injury of rats induced by di-N-butyl-phthalate (DBP).

BACKGROUND: Di-N-butyl-phthalate (DBP) is an endocrine disrupting substance. We investigated the adverse effect of DBP on testis of male rat and reveal its potential mechanism of MAPK signaling pathway involved this effect in vivo and in vitro. Gonadal hormone, sperm quality, morphological change and the activation status of JNK, ERK1/2 and p38 was determined in vivo. Primary Sertoli cell was established and cultivated with JNK, ERK1/2 inhibitors, then determine the cell viability, apoptosis and the expression of p-JNK, p-ERK1/2. Data in this study were presented as mean ± SD and determined by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni's test. Difference was considered statistically significant at P < 0.05. RESULTS: In vivo experiment, DBP impaired the normal structure of testicular tissue, reduced testosterone levels in blood serum, decreased sperm count and increased sperm abnormality, p-ERK1/2 and p-JNK in rat testicular tissue increased in a dose-dependent manner. In vitro studies, DBP could decrease the viability of Sertoli cells and increase p-ERK1/2 and p-JNK. Cell apoptosis in SP600125 + DBP group was significantly lower than in DBP group (P < 0.05). p-JNK was not significantly decreased in SP600125 + DBP group, while p-ERK1/2 was significantly decreased in U0126 + DBP group. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that DBP can lead to testicular damage and the activation of ERK1/2 and JNK pathways, the JNK signaling pathway may be primarily associated with its effect.

Acute effects on human sperm exposed in vitro to cadmium chloride and diisobutyl phthalate.

Epidemiological studies reported a negative relationship between concentrations of heavy metals and phthalates in seminal fluid and semen quality, likely compromising male fertility potential. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro effects of cadmium chloride (CdCl2), a common heavy metal, and diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), a common phthalate ester, on human sperm functions necessary for fertilization. After in vitro incubation of spermatozoa with 10 µM CdCl2 or 100 and 200 µM DIBP for 24 h, a significant decrease of sperm progressive and hyperactivated motility was observed. The exposure to each of the two toxic agents also induced spontaneous sperm acrosome reaction and blunted the physiological response to progesterone. Both agents induced an increase of caspase activity suggesting triggering of an apoptotic pathway. Our results suggest that acute exposure of spermatozoa to these pollutants may impair sperm ability to reach and fertilize the oocyte.

Environmentally relevant exposure to dibutyl phthalate disrupts DNA damage repair gene expression in the mouse ovary†.

Phthalates have a history of reproductive toxicity in animal models and associations with adverse reproductive outcomes in women. Human exposure to dibutyl phthalate (DBP) occurs via consumer products (7-10 µg/kg/day) and medications (1-233 µg/kg/day). Most DBP toxicity studies have focused on high supraphysiological exposure levels; thus, very little is known about exposures occurring at environmentally relevant levels. CD-1 female mice (80 days old) were treated with tocopherol-stripped corn oil (vehicle control) or DBP dissolved in oil at environmentally relevant (10 and 100 µg/kg/day) or higher (1000 µg/kg/day) levels for 30 days to evaluate effects on DNA damage response (DDR) pathway genes and folliculogenesis. DBP exposure caused dose-dependent effects on folliculogenesis and gene expression. Specifically, animals exposed to the high dose of DBP had more atretic follicles in their ovaries, while in those treated with environmentally relevant doses, follicle numbers were no different from vehicle-treated controls. DBP exposure significantly reduced the expression of DDR genes including those involved in homologous recombination (Atm, Brca1, Mre11a, Rad50), mismatch repair (Msh3, Msh6), and nucleotide excision repair (Xpc, Pcna) in a dose-specific manner. Interestingly, staining for the DNA damage marker, γH2AX, was similar between treatments. DBP exposure did not result in differential DNA methylation in the Brca1 promoter but significantly reduced transcript levels for the maintenance DNA methyltransferase, Dnmt1, in the ovary. Collectively, these findings show that oral exposure to environmentally relevant levels of DBP for 30 days does not significantly impact folliculogenesis in adult mice but leads to aberrant ovarian expression of DDR genes.

Enhancement of mouse contact hypersensitivity appears with a short chain triacylglycerol but not with a long chain one.

The prevalence of skin allergies could be partly due to the increased exposure to chemicals from consumer products. Chemicals that can enhance hypersensitivity caused by other chemicals are the focus of this study. We have demonstrated that phthalate esters with short chain alcohols enhance fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-induced contact hypersensitivity (CHS) in a mouse model. We have also found that tributyrin, a triacylglycerol (TAG) with three butyric acids, enhances sensitization to FITC. To elucidate such an enhanced skin sensitization might be based on a general feature of TAG, we compared tributyrin and triolein, a natural TAG, as to an adjuvant effect on FITC-CHS. Triolein is the dominant TAG in olive oil and contains long chain mono-unsaturated fatty acids. Unlike tributyrin and dibutyl phthalate (DBP), triolein did not exhibit an adjuvant effect. With triolein, enhancement of FITC-presenting CD11c+ dendritic cell trafficking to draining lymph nodes was weak, and the activation status of DC, as revealed as CD86 expression, was low. We found a difference in the pattern of skin cytokine production, i.e., that thymic stromal lymphopoietin was produced with DBP and interleukin-1ß with tributyrin. Triolein did not induce either of these cytokines. This illustrates that the adjuvant effect of tributyrin on FITC-CHS is not a general phenomenon for TAGs. Although beneficial effects may be expected through oral administration of tributyrin, the effect on skin immune systems should be considered.

A CCR4 antagonist ameliorates atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions induced by dibutyl phthalate and a hydrogel patch containing ovalbumin.

CCR4 is a chemokine receptor highly expressed by Th2 cells, and regarded as a potential therapeutic target for atopic dermatitis (AD). CCL17 and CCL22 are the CCR4 ligands, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) is shown to promote the expression of CCL17 and CCL22 by dendritic cells. Here, by using dibutyl phthalate (DBP), a TSLP inducer, and a hydrogel patch as a transcutaneous delivery device for ovalbumin, we developed a novel murine AD model and investigated the effect of Compound 22, a CCR4 antagonist. We first found that the mRNA expression of TSLP together with CCL17 and CCL22 was increased in the skins treated with DBP. Furthermore, the topical application of ovalbumin and DBP efficiently and rapidly induced AD-like skin lesions in BALB/c mice, which were characterized by ear swelling accompanied by infiltration of eosinophils, mast cells, and CCR4-expressing Th2 cells in the skin lesions, and elevated total IgE levels in the sera. Using this AD model, we demonstrated that cutaneous administration of Compound 22 inhibited Th2 cell infiltration and ameliorated the AD-like skin lesions. These results suggest that our AD model could be useful for studying new therapeutic strategies. Collectively, CCR4 antagonists may be a promising approach for treating AD.

Di-n-butyl phthalate modifies PMA-induced macrophage differentiation of THP-1 monocytes via PPARγ.

The present study examined the effects of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) on phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced macrophage differentiation of THP-1 monocytes, determined by morphological classification and flow cytometry. Focusing on the expression of the surface marker CD36, the potential role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) was examined using various PPARγ agonists and antagonists. As the PPARγ ligand-binding domain contains multiple ligand-binding sites (LBS), agonist and antagonists targeting the different sites were used. DBP accelerated PMA-induced morphological changes and increased expression of CD36, although to a lesser degree than the PPARγ agonists rosiglitazone and 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2). A proteomics screening revealed that DBP enhanced the expression of PPARγ-regulated proteins. During combined exposures, DBP partly attenuated the effect of rosiglitazone, an agonist binding reversibly to PPARγ's canonical LBS. In contrast, DBP increased expression of CD36 in combination with 15d-PGJ2 which binds irreversibly to the canonical LBS. Thus, DBP appears to interact with both the canonical and alternative LBS. Accordingly, the antagonist GW9662, which binds to the canonical LBS, only partly reduced the DBP-induced CD36 expression, while the dual-site antagonist SR16832 completely blocked the effects of DBP. Overall, the results show that DBP modifies PMA-induced differentiation of THP-1 cells through interaction with PPARγ.

Physiological responses of wheat planted in fluvo-aquic soils to di (2-ethylhexyl) and di-n-butyl phthalates.

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) are important pollutants that contaminate agricultural soils. We determined the effects of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) on the production of reactive oxygen species, photosynthesis, and activity of antioxidant enzymes in wheat planted in fluvo-aquic soils. DBP- and DEHP-induced oxidative stress decreased the values of the photosynthetic/fluorescence parameters (except for intercellular carbon dioxide concentration) and chlorophyll content at the seedling, jointing, and booting stages. Moreover, the non-stomatal factor responsible for the net decrease in photosynthetic efficiency was identified as the decrease in fluorescence resulting from the decreased amount of chlorophyll a returning from the excited to the ground energy state. The content of superoxide anions and hydrogen peroxide in wheat leaves and roots increased with increasing DBP and DEHP supplementation, compared to the control. Antioxidant enzyme activities in the leaves and roots at the seedling stage increased at DBP and DEHP levels of 10 and 20 mg kg-1, respectively, and the enzyme activities at the jointing and booting stages increased with increasing concentrations of the chemicals, compared to the control. These results demonstrated that increased levels of antioxidant enzymes play a significant role in protecting plant growth under DBP and DEHP stress.